If you are a university faculty member teaching Hebrew or Greek, and you have recently met a scholar who is blind and who wants to study biblical languages, you may have some questions about how this is possible. This article provides information that will help you to understand the resources available to assist the scholar in the study of biblical languages. Since the scholar may possess some or all of the technology that is needed, this information will assist you in communicating effectively. If the scholar is in need of additional assistance, some information is provided at the end of the article which will enable you to brainstorm with the scholar regarding strategies for obtaining needed supplies.
Textbook Concerns
The greatest concern regarding language study is whether the textbook used in the course is available in an accessible format. Several Greek texts are available from the Bartimaeus Group. These are in a special format for use by scholars who are blind. They can be printed on a braille printer (called an embosser) or viewed on a braille display. (See below for more information.)
Only a handful of Hebrew texts are available in accessible form. I have tried to catalog them on this site. I hope that in time, my job will get harder.
It is sometimes possible to obtain books in electronic format from the publisher; however in PDF format. Textbook PDF formats may or may not interact well with screen readers
Where a sighted person sees text on the screen, the computer may actually be presenting only a picture of text. Therefore, the screen reader has nothing to convert. In this case, the file can be loaded into optical character recognition programs for conversion. This process introduces errors in the end product. The recognition of Hebrew consonants is reasonable; but it will not recognize vowels. This can cause significant problems in the learning of biblical grammar. Some AI products will produce Hebrew output. Whether they consistently produce reliable Hebrew that is accessible to screen readers iwth braille displays and is consistent with what is on the page remains to be seen at the time of this writing (fall 2026).
In light of the shortage of accessible textbooks, many scholars wishing to study Hebrew elect to arrange for independent study and use a transcribed text in braille.
An Overview of Technology Used by scholars Who Are Blind
Technology for people who are blind includes a number of devices that enable the person to read and/or write. Often, a number of different configurations enable the same thing, much like the difference between a PC and a Mac. It is important to remember that two people who are blind may prefer different pieces of technology. This is especially true if you have been teaching for a while and have had a blind scholar in a previous class. Technology develops very rapidly in this field; and the devices used by your previous scholar may no longer be manufactured if some time has past. Your current scholar is likely very knowledgeable about his/her own needs, though more information may be needed in order to make the study of biblical languages a success. The biblical language study page provides a wealth of information for blind scholars regarding how to configure their technology and what resources are available in accessible format. If your scholar is not technically savvy, he/she may need some assistance in making these configurations. If neither of you knows where to obtain this assistance, I am available to consult regarding these things.
Braille Writing Equipment
If your scholar is familiar with braille, there may be reasons why using it in or outside of class would be useful. You do not need to know braille yourself; but being familiar with the tools your scholar is using can help you to relate more easily to each other. Much stress can be alleviated for a scholar simply by the fact that you do not need to be educated about the braille system or by the fact that you are not afraid of the unknown.
The simplest and cheapest device for writing braille is the slate and stylus. The slate is a device consisting of a guide which is attached to a frame housing a number of evenly spaced braille cells. Paper is inserted between the guide and the frame. Using the stylus, the writer is able to punch out any combination of braille dots and thus produce hard copy braille. All scholars do not use the “slate”–in fact, many consider it antiquated and/or “too hard” to learn. However, some find it essential because of its portability and ability to produce hard copy braille on the spot.
The Perkins Brailler is a machine very similar to a typewriter that allows for braille input and output. The Perkins brailler features a row of six keys, three on either side of a spacebar, as well as a line advancement key and a backspace key at either end of the keyboard. The “Perkins” is not something that a college scholar will use in a classroom; however, some scholars may have one in their room or apartment and may use it if they want notes or other items in hard copy braille. Many technologies also feature a Perkins-style keyboard, and the technologies are extremely popular because braille input feels like natural writing to many people who are blind.
Computer Access for People Who Are Blind
People who are blind or visually impaired access the computer using one of three modes of output: large print, synthetic speech, or braille. Many have learned to type well and are quite comfortable with using the computer keyboard. In fact, keyboard commands provide access to most of the same functions normally accessed using the mouse. Voice recognition software is not required by a person who is blind or visually impaired.
Note: Linux and Mac systems are accessible to people who are blind. The Mac provides some access to languages, biblical study software access is very poor. I have never evaluated Linux for language accessibility.
Large Print
A great number of scholars who are visually impaired have some usable vision and are often able to read print that has been magnified. Windows provides an accessibility option which enables the user to enlarge the text on the screen. This is adequate for some people. Others, who may need larger print, use software which enables further enlargement of the text as well as the changing of foreground and background colors and, in some cases, synthetic speech output which supplements the large print. The two most popular programs are ZoomText, manufactured by AI Squared of Vermont, and Magic, manufactured by Freedom Scientific of Florida. Both companies offer demonstration versions as downloads from their Websites.
A scholar who is using screen enlargement software will not necessarily need to make special modifications in order to access language material or write in Hebrew or Greek. However, they may experience reading fatigue and may have difficulty seeing their own handwriting. For this reason, they may prefer to use a Hebrew or Greek keyboard. I recommend the keyboards from Logos Software. They are available via my keyboarding page along with installation instructions.
Synthetic Speech
People who cannot see well enough to read large print or who find reading for long periods of time to be tiring may use software which causes the text from the screen to be spoken via the sound card or another device, called a speech synthesizer. The quality of speech offered varies depending on the device, but it has improved greatly since its inception in 1939. Screen readers also provide text output through the computer’s serial, USB, or bluetooth port to send to a braille display. These displays show a certain number of characters at a time; and various commands enable the user to move around the screen to see more text.
Screen readers are available from several companies to provide access to Windows. Choosing a screen reader is a lot like choosing a car. Some are low-cost and have simpler interfaces. Some are quite expensive and provide advanced features and even a number of robust voice options to choose from. I use the JAWS screen reader; and a few people and I have worked together to make a number of configuration options available online for other JAWS users who need access to biblical language texts. Several screen readers provide reasonable access to both Hebrew and Greek text using a braille display. For more detailed updates regarding software accessibility, please see the most recent accessibility update in the accessibility timeline.
Users of synthetic speech output can take advantage of specialized keyboard combinations which cause the output device to read by line, paragraph, sentence, word, etc. One of the greatest disadvantages of using synthetic speech, however, is the difficulty it presents in enabling the user to form an accurate understanding of the layout of the screen when the screen reader does not read the information in its correct context. This problem may arise when incorrect methods have been used to format information or when the software has not been used previously with a screen reader and may employ new methods of displaying information which the screen reader does not “recognize”. Furthermore, the latest versions of screen readers rearrange the text from pages which contain columns or tables significantly so that reading will be easier for people who are blind. This can prevent the blind user from knowing how the information was originally organized and how pieces of data relate to one another. Developers of screen readers are now including features that allow the user to get more information about text format and layout. Several companies and individuals also offer tutorials and training which can help blind people to gain a better understanding of how Windows presents information on the screen and how to use screen readers most effectively.
All screen readers have the ability to pronounce Hebrew in the Israeli pronunciation. Some users find this difficult to understand, but the voice will handle Hebrew reasonably well.
Screen readers are configured to read modern Greek by default. This means that they ignore all polytonic marks, resulting of mispronunciation of numerous words. For example, ἐν
and ῆν
, νί
are all pronounced "nee". The fatigue that can result from putting fort great effort to achieve the same success as one’s peers without proper access is extremely great.
Braille Output
As mentioned above, a braille display is a device which works with a screen reader, displaying a certain number of characters on a single line at one time. Features of the device allow for exploring various areas of the screen. As the user moves around the screen using the controls, the line of braille, created by an array of pins, “disappears” and a new combination of pins from the array forms the braille translation of text from the new portion of the screen.
Braille displays are the most costly of the access options; however, they provide the best access to language materials. They also allow for a more realistic concept of the layout of the screen to be formed.
Braille displays work in combination with the same software which controls the production of synthetic speech. Therefore, when setting up the computer to display foreign language materials, some changes need to be made to the “screen reader.” Instructions for making these changes are available on the braille display page and on the keyboarding page.
Notetakers and PDAs
A “notetaker” is a portable device which allows for word processing and selected other activities. A variety of notetakers are available and offer a number of features. Some allow the blind person to enter commands and information using a Perkins-style keyboard. Others feature a standard qwerty keyboard. Some provide only speech output while others feature a braille display. Many notetakers also include calculator functions.
The advantages of notetakers include portability, long battery life, quick start-up, and choice of keyboard style.
Notetakers include word processing, book reader, and sometimes online access and audio player. Scholars will be able to use notetakers with braille input keyboards to take their own notes; however, the back translator may not convert this material into the correct language if they are doing homework to turn in. When doing English to Hebrew or Greek exercises, a computer with an appropriate language keyboard should be used.
Braille Translation Software: What’s the Point?
Braille translation software converts computerized print into braille for embossing in hard copy or use on a braille display. scholars may use a translation program to emboss electronic texts which have been prepared in braille format or to translate their own materials for embossing in hard copy. The Duxbury Braille Translator will translate Hebrew material from print to braille; however, it does not currently support polytonic Greek (the characters used in biblical Greek). Note: The books from Bartimaeus Group were scanned using optical braille recognition and are not in need of braille translation. However, the translation program is needed to communicate with the braille embosser.
Braille Embossers
An embosser accepts the contents of a text file or a file created by translation software and creates a braille hard copy, just as a printer creates a print hard copy. Braille embossers may “print” on one or both sides of a page and may produce braille at up to 56 characters per second.
Closed-Circuit Televisions
Closed-circuit televisions (CCTVs) display magnified text from a page on a screen. Many CCTVs also allow the user to select different background and foreground colors. This is a useful feature for people who find that reading light text on a dark background is easier. Some CCTVs are portable.
People who have a fair amount of vision may be comfortable using a CCTV for long reading assignments for which a magnifier is not suitable. People with less vision may use the CCTV for reading mail or short pieces of information while relying on other modes of reading for longer work.
Scanners and OCR Software
Scanners send an image of a page to a computer, where optical character recognition (OCR) software interprets the text from the image and feeds it to the screen reader. A scanner and OCR software can enable a blind person to read most books and many magazines independently.
Some mainstream OCR programs, such as Abbyy Fine Reader Professional, are very compatible with screen readers. Specialized OCR programs are also available that provide additional features which are useful for people with visual impairments. Examples include Freedom Scientific’s OpenBook and Xerox’s Kurzweil.
Abbyy Fine Reader Professional scans both Hebrew and Greek. Hebrew vowels and pointing is omitted; and Greek breathing marks are omitted. I am unfamiliar with the capabilities of other programs regarding these languages.
Writing in Hebrew and Greek
Your scholar will be able to produce Hebrew and Greek using an alternate “keyboard,” a software program which remaps the keys on the computer keyboard so that a person can type in another language. Instructions for downloading and installing Hebrew and Greek keyboards that have been tested for use with braille displays and the JAWS screen reader are available on the keyboards page.
Assisting Your scholar
When talking with your scholar, it is important to keep in mind that the scholar may or may not be quite knowledgeable about technology and resources available. Many scholars are quite adept at searching for information online and have learned to make plans for obtaining what they need. Often, what they need most is for faculty and staff to maintain an open mind regarding their capabilities and to be willing to learn how they do things. If you have had other blind scholars in the past, it is important to remember to relate to each scholar as an individual. Your current scholar may or may not wish to network with your previous scholars and may or may not want information regarding your previous scholars’ methods of study.
If your scholar does not possess all of the technology and resources that is needed for language study, vocational rehabilitation programs may be of assistance. Your assistance in verifying that language study is required for completing your program may help your scholar to obtain timely assistance from a vocational rehabilitation counselor. Alternatively, if you anticipate welcoming additional scholars who are blind into your program, you might consider encouraging your university to purchase some assistive technology and set up an accessible workstation.
If you have questions regarding the information in this article or other aspects of language study as a scholar who is blind, please email me.